History Time Line Hall of Fame		History : Time Line   Year   What Happened 1895 Wilhelm Röntgen discovers x-rays.  The world immediately appreciates their medical potential.  Within five years, for example, the British Army is using a mobile x-ray unit to locate bullets and shrapnel in wounded soldiers in the Sudan. 1896 Henri Becquerel discovers the emission of rays by uranium. 1897 J.J. Thomson discovers the electron. 1898 Pierre and Marie Curie discover the first radioactive elements: radium and polonium. 1901 Henri Alexandre Danlos and Eugene Bloch place radium in contact with a tuberculous skin lesion. 1903 Rutherford and Soddy establish the theory of nuclear reactions. 1903 Alexander Graham Bell suggests placing sources containing radium in or near tumors. 1905 Albert Einstein develops theory about the relationship of mass and energy: E=mc2. 1911 George von Hevesy conceives the idea of using radioactive tracers.  This idea is later applied to, among other things, medical diagnosis. 1913 Niels Bohr introduces the first atom model, the mini solar system. 1913 Frederick Proescher publishes the first study on the intravenous injection of radium for therapy of various diseases. 1924 Georg de Hevesy, J.A. Christiansen and Sven Lomholt perform the first radiotracer (lead-210 and bismuth-210) studies in animals. 1927 Herman Blumgart, a Boston physician, first uses radioactive tracers to diagnose heart disease. 1930- 1932 Walther Bothe and Herbert Becker in Germany, Irene and Frederic Joliot-Curie in France, and James Chadwick in the United Kingdom conduct a series of experiments which culminate in Chadwick's discovery of the neutron. 1932 Ernest O. Lawrence and M. Stanley Livingston publish the first article on "the production of high speed light ions without the use of high voltages."  It is a milestone in the production of usable quantities of radionuclides. 1934 Irene and Frederic Joliot-Curie discover artificial radioactivity. 1936 John H. Lawrence, the brother of Ernest, makes the first clinical therapeutic application of an artificial radionuclide when he uses phosphorus-32 to treat leukemia. 1937 John Livingood, Fred Fairbrother and Glenn Seaborg discover iron-59.  1938 John Livingood and Glenn Seaborg discover iodine-131 and cobalt-60 - all isotopes currently used in nuclear medicine. 1938 Two German scientists, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman, demonstrate nuclear fission. 1939 Halban, Frederic Joliot-Curie and Kowarski demonstrate that fission of uranium can cause a chain reaction.  They take a first patent on the production of nuclear energy. 1939 Emilio Segre and Glenn Seaborg discover technetium-99m - an isotope currently used in nuclear medicine. 1940 The Rockefeller Foundation funds the first cyclotron dedicated for biomedical radioisotope production at Washington University in St. Louis. 1942 The Manhattan Project is formed to secretly build the atomic bomb before the Nazis. 1942 Fermi demonstrates the first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction in a lab at the University of Chicago. 1945 The United States drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.  Japan surrenders. 1946 Samuel M. Seidlin, Leo D. Marinelli and Eleanor Oshry treat a patient with thyroid cancer with iodine-131, an "atomic cocktail." 1947 Benedict Cassen uses radioiodine to determine whether a thyroid nodule accumulates iodine, helping to differentiate benign from malignant nodules. 1948 Nuclear chain reaction achieved in ZOE, the first French atomic pile in Fort de Chatillon. 1948 Abbott Laboratories begins distribution of radioistopes. 1950 K.R. Crispell and John P. Storaasli use iodine-131 labeled human serum albumin (RISA) for imaging the blood pool within the heart. 1951 Electricity from nuclear energy first produced in the US (100 kilowatts) in Experimental Breeder Reactor 1 (EBR1) at the National Reactor Station, later called the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory. 1951 The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approve sodium iodide 1-131 for use with thyroid patients.  It is the first FDA-approved radiopharmaceutical. 1952 Operations begin at the Savannah River Plant in Aiken, South Carolina with the startup of the heavy water plant. 1953 In his Atoms for Peace speech, President Eisenhower proposes joint international cooperation to develop peaceful applications of nuclear energy. 1953 Gordon Brownell and H.H. Sweet build a positron detector based on the detection of annihilation photons by means of coincidence counting. 1954 The first nuclear submarine, Nautilus, is launched. 1954 First nuclear power plant begins operation in the Obninsk Scientific Center, Russia (5 megawatts). 1954 David Kuhl invents a photorecording system for radionuclide scanning.  This development moves nuclear medicine further in the direction of radiology. 1954 President Dwight Eisenhower signs Atomic Energy Act, opening door to private use of nuclear energy. 1955 Arco, Idaho becomes the first U.S. town to be powered by nuclear energy. 1955 Rex Huff measures the cardiac output in man using iodine-131 human serum albumin. 1956 G1, first French nuclear power plant begins operation in Marcoule (5 megawatts). 1957 The United States sets off first underground nuclear test in a mountain tunnel in the remote desert 100 miles from Las Vegas. 1957 Radiation is released when the graphite core of the Windscale nuclear reactor in England catches fire. 1957 The first U.S. large-scale nuclear power plant begins operating in Shippingport, Pennsylvania. 1958 Hal Anger invents the "scintillation camera," an imaging device that made it possible to conduct dynamic studies. 1958 USSR approves potato and grain irradiation. 1959 The Dresden-1 Nuclear Power Station in Illinois achieves a self-sustaining nuclear reaction.  It's the first U.S. nuclear power plant built entirely without government funding. 1959 First fast breeder reactor begins operation in the Obninsk Scientific Center, Russia (12 megawatts). 1960 Louis G. Stang, Jr., and Powell (Jim) Richards advertise technetium-99m and other generators for sale by Brookhaven National Laboratory.  Technetium-99m had not yet been used in nuclear medicine. 1960 Canada approves potato irradiation. 1960 The Atomic Energy Commission announces the successful development of a 220-pound nuclear reactor designed to provide electric power for space vehicles. 1962 David Kuhl introduces emission reconstruction tomography.  This method later became known as SPECT and PET.  It was extended in radiology to transmission X-ray scanning, known as CT. 1963 The United States and Soviet Union sign the Limited Test Ban Treaty, which prohibits underwater, atmospheric, and outer space nuclear tests.  More than 100 countries have ratified the treaty since 1963. 1963 The FDA exempts the "new drug" requirements for radiopharmaceuticals regulated by the Atomic Energy Commission. 1963 Henry Wagner first uses radiolabeled albumin aggregates for imaging lung perfusion in normal persons and patients with pulmonary embolism. 1963 U.S. FDA approves irradiated bacon, wheat, and wheat flour and potatoes. 1964 U.S. FDA approves flexible packaging materials of food as contaminants during irradiation processing. 1964 The world's first nuclear powered lighthouse, the "Baltimore Light," on the Chesapeake Bay in Md., goes into operation.  A 60-watt radioisotope nuclear generator, 345 inches high, weighing 4,600 pounds, supplies a continuous flow of electricity for 10 years without refueling. 1966- 1967 The large number of utility orders for nuclear power reactors makes nuclear power a commercial reality in the United States. 1968 Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT)--calling for halting the spread of nuclear weapons capabilities--is signed.  By 1970, more than 50 countries had ratified the NPT.  By 1986, more than 130 countries had ratified it. 1969 C.L. Edwards reports the accumulation of gallium-67 in cancer.$nbsp; In 1970 The FDA announces that it will gradually withdraw the exemption granted to radiopharmaceuticals and start regulating them as drugs.  The change would be completed by Jan. 20, 1977. 1971 The American Medical Association officially recognizes nuclear medicine as a medical speciality. 1972 Computer axial tomography, commonly known as CAT scanning, is introduced.  A CAT scan combines many high-definition, cross-sectional x-rays to produce a two-dimensional image of a patient's anatomy. 1973 Phenix, first French fast breeder power plant in operation in Marcoule (250 megawatts). 1973 Energy crisis due to Arab oil embargo. 1973 H. William Strauss introduces the exercise stress-test myocardial scan. 1976 John Keyes develops the first general purpose single photo emission computed tomography (SPECT) camera.  Ronald Jaszczak develops the first dedicated head SPECT camera. 1976 Joint Expert Committee on Food Irradiation (JEFCI) approves several irradiated foods and recommends that food irradiation be classified as a physical process. 1977 President Carter bans the recycling of used nuclear fuel from commercial reactors. 1977 The Voyager 2 spacecraft is launched carrying a 12-inch copper phonograph record containing greetings in every language.  The spacecraft's electricity is generated by the decay of plutonium 238 pellets. 1978 David Goldenberg uses radiolabeled antibodies to image tumors in humans. 1979 Three Mile Island nuclear power plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania suffers a partial core meltdown.  Minimal quantity of radioactive material is released.  (See History at Three Mile Island on the ANS web site.) 1980 JEFCI approves all irradiated foods treated with a maximum average dose of 10kGy. 1981 J.P. Mach uses radiolabeled monoclonal antibodies for tumor imaging. 1982 Steve Larson and Jeff Carrasquillo use iodine-131 labeled monoclonial antibodies to treat cancer patients with malignant melanoma. 1983 U.S. FDA and Canadian Health & Welfare Department approve spice irradiation. 1985 U.S. FDA approves irradiation of pork to control trichinosis. 1986 Chernobyl nuclear reactor melts down and fire occurs in the Ukraine.  Massive quantities of radioactive material are released. 1986 U.S. FDA approves irradiation of fruits and vegetables and other foods up to doses of one kGy. 1987 Nuclear Waste Policy Amendments Act designates Yucca Mountain, Nevada as candidate for nation's first geological repository for high-level radioactive waste and spent nuclear fuel. 1988 U.S. electricity demand is 50% higher than in 1973. 1989 109 nuclear power plants provide 19% of the electricity used in U.S.; 46 units have entered service during this decade. 1989 The FDA approves the first positron radiopharmaceutical (rubidium-82) for myocardial perfusion imaging. 1989 Galileo Mission is launched aboard the space shuttle Atlantis. 1990 110 nuclear power plants in the U.S. set a record for the amount of electricity generated, surpassing all fuel sources combined in 1956. 1990 The Ulysses mission is launched aboard the space shuttle Discovery. 1990 The FDA approves irradiation of packaged fresh or frozen uncooked poultry and supports it as an effective control of microorganisms responsible for a major portion of food-borne illness, including Salmonella, Yersinia, and Campylobacter. 1991 111 nuclear power plants operate in the U.S. produce almost 22% of the electricity generated commercially in the U.S. 1992 The FDA approves the first monoclonal antibody radiopharmaceutical for tumor imaging. 1992 DOE signs cooperative agreement with the nuclear industry to co-fund the development of standard designs for advanced light water reactors. 1992 The Energy Policy Act of 1992 is signed into law.  The Act makes several important changes in the licensing process for nuclear power plants. 2001 Finland considers order of new nuclear power plant. 2002 DOE and the U.S. nuclear industry cooperate on site location for new nuclear power plant. 2002 House of Representatives approves Yucca Mountain as final disposal site for spent nuclear fuel.